Nozicks Theories of Justice Analysis

Nozicks Theories of Justice Analysis Introduction Robert Nozick gained fame as a leading American philosopher thanks to the success of his 1974 book, Anarchy, State, and Utopia. The books endeavours to further explore the anti-consequentialist elements that have been discussed by John Rawls in his book, A Theory of Justice. Nozick has identified the best tool with which to gauge state action is its respect for individual rights. For this reason, a minimal state, according to Nozick, is the only legitimate state considering its key role in protecting various individual rights, including the right to life, the right to own property, and liberty. Nozick endeavours to refute the anarchists claim by way of demonstrating how a minimal state might come about without infringing on individual rights. Nozick has also endeavoured to restore interest in the idea that individual rights are a key element of the political theory by considering the political philosophy of libertarianism. The premise of this essay is to argue that Nozicks minimal st ate is unjust by exploring counter-arguments to it, such as by Rawls. Nozicks libertarianism Libertarianism advocates for the need to limit role of state in societal issues, basically to national defence, police protection, as well as how courts of law are governed. In his libertarianism philosophy, Nozick argues that all other tasks that the modern government is charged with, such as social insurance, welfare, and education, ought to be taken over by charities, religious organisations, and by private institutions. In this case, Nozick contends that the private institutions should essentially operate in a free market. Many libertarians depend on sociological and economic considerations in defending their position namely, the innate processes that could trigger inefficiency and incompetence in state bureaucracies, as well as the advantages of market competition. They also cite the poor record of government in addressing such specific issues as pollution and poverty. While Nozick seeks to endorse such arguments, he, nonetheless, assumes a moral position in defending libertarianism. Nozick is of the view that while there are practical benefits associated with liberalism, its profound respect for individual rights is by far the strongest. Nozicks libertarianism is largely based on his entitlement theory which states that if a person has acquired a property justly, he/she has the right to own it. In the event that a person possesses a property that has been obtained through unjust means such a property should be subjected to the compensation and rectification processes. Nozick further opines that where an individual is entitled to own a property, denying them the right to own it against their will amounts to an injustice. A minimal state emerges from Nozicks state of nature. Such a state, according to Nozick, cannot pry into peoples lives, and neither can it force them into surrendering what they justly own. The minimal state, therefore, only protec ts the individual against being forced to enter into a contract, fraud, as well as theft. On account of the entitlement theory, the state has no right to coerce its citizens into forfeiting property that rightfully belongs to them so that the proceeds can be used to funding government programmes which the state views as constituting the common good. As such, while people are likely to contribute towards the support of various schemes out of their own volition, the state cannot forcibly tax them with the goal of funding public education, providing for the  poor or public goods, among others. Nozick strong claims about rights Nozick is convinced that a key function of political philosophy is to refute the claim made by the anarchist to the effect that no state is legitimate. Given his focus on moral rights, Nozick argued in favour of a minimal state that preserved moral rights. Mulgan is opposed to the moral right of a minimal state that Nozick speaks in favour of, arguing that they are the only legal means of enabling a state to exercise its legal and political rights. Nozick is of the view that the society that emerges from a minimal state boasts of a capitalist economy, as well as a free market. Accordingly, such a society fulfils the requirements of a free society. A state that exceeds these requirements would be morally unacceptable seeing as it would contravene rights. In defending the minimal state, Nozick stretched a history that traced the origin of a minimal state from a state of nature with no rights having been violated. His was hypothetical, as opposed to actual history, which indicated the e mergence of a minimal state through just means. The libertarian perspective recognises individuals as possessing rights. As such, when other people do certain things to them, this amount to a violation of their individual rights. The reason why these rights are natural is because we have them based on what they are as opposed to having received them from someone. Nozick states that stating we have rights is different from explaining why we have rights. In a bid to draw this important distinction, Nozick makes use of the second formulation of Categorical Imperative that Immanuel Kant popularised namely, that one should act in such a manner as to treat humanity as an end, as opposed to treating humanity as a means. Kant was of the view that humans are rational by nature and that they possess dignity. Accordingly, humans should be treated with dignity. It is this dignity that hinders other people from using us, implying that humans have rights against use of this nature. Nozick opines that human rights act as side-constraints, and this has a limiting effect on what other people (the state included) may do to us. Nozick further opines that humans cannot trade their rights in exchange for something of benefit. For instance, pursuing a little more wealth or happiness is not sufficient grounds for contravening an individuals rights. According to Nozick, people are inviolable, implying that they ought not to be used to meet certain ends if doing so is against their will. Nozick has relied on this argument while developing his self-ownership principle. Nozick opines that because an individual owns his/herself, they thus have a right to do with themselves what they deem pleasing. Since nobody else owns us and we do not own them, each one of us has his/her individual rights to themselves and what is in their possession. In other words, we have rights against violations by other people, including theft, enslavement, and the rights to have access to such services as education and healthcare, and the right to own property through just means. Wilt Chamberlain unjust and just distributions In his Wilt Chamberlain argument, Nozick endeavoured to highlight his claim against the idea of distributive justice. In this case, Nozick tries to show that patterned ideologies of distributive justice are not attuned with freedom. His argument is thus an attempt at depicting justice in transfer. Chamberlain is a famous basketball player and some of his fans willingly pay money to watch him play basketball. Consequently, Chamberlain benefits from a huge amount of cash. Nozick contends that he sees nothing wrong with an individual disposing of his or her resources, on condition that this is done willingly. Nozick further intimates that he sees nothing wrong with distribution borne out of voluntary transactions. The Wilt Chamberlain argument is therefore an attempt by Nozick to demonstrate that voluntary exchange as evidenced by basketball fans willingly paying to see Chamberlain play is okay. Nozick does not see anything wrong with transactions of this nature. The outcome of this transfer is that Chamberlain ends up with more than he did previously. Again, Nozick sees nothing wrong with such an outcome. Nozick contends that when individuals willingly dispose of resources, this ends up upsetting patterns. Assuming, for instance, that a utility maximising pattern had been established in society prior to the basketball fans opting to watch Chamberlain play and this pattern is not maximised nay more after the transfers of the transactions have been made to Chamberlain, Nozick argue that it would be unreasonable to try and forcefully go back to such a pattern through state action. Nozick argues that Liberty upsets patterns , and goes on to indicate that it would be unfair to attempt to reinstate a pattern that has been destabilised by intentional transfer. The most important thing for Nozick is entitlement. For the reason that individuals obtain holdings due to other individuals having relinquished holdings either in exchange for certain services or goods (for example, watching Chamberlain play) or due to charitable donations, then the individual who receives such holdings has a claim to them since they have been transferred voluntarily. Similarly, Nozick contends that free transfer will agitate any end-state theory, such as ensuring that everyone has an equal share to the holdings. This is based on the understanding that provided that individuals are able to transfer property without restraint and based on their needs, such as end-state shall shortly be upset. Any attempt to restore such an end state through forceful means would amount to a contravention of i ndividual entitlement rights. Critics to Nozicks argument on Chamberlain contend that Chamberlain holds no absolute rights to this new holding and that a portion of this new income could be subjected to taxation under legitimate means in order that the amount taxed may help fund crucial societal projects. Regarding this, Cohen further contends that redistributive claims of third parties, and more so the very poor, may lawfully change following a change in the comprehensive distribution in society since what is in possession of third parties is reliant on what others possess, in addition to the comprehensive distribution in society. It is also likely hat the intuitive petition that Nozick links to his Wilt Chamberlain argument might actually fail to attract universal recognition. Many critics are of the opinion that there could be considerable instinctive entreat towards arguments that endeavour to demonstrate a basis for the provision of support for persons unable to fend for themselves, in preference to towards the instinctive petition to permit Chamberlain to hold onto all the money emanating from voluntary transactions. A review of Nozicks Wilt Chamberlain argument indicates that it may not be appealing without firth accepting his moral intuitions and entitlement theory. Three Principles of Justice Nozick recognises three principles of justice, which are essential to his entitlement theory. They are: just acquisition; just transfer; and just rectification. Nozick is of the view that the just acquisition principle gives an individual the freedoms to acquire any holdings that they wish to obtain, provided that such property has not been acquired by fraudulent means, through forceful means, or via theft. Nozick further maintains that the principle of just transfer allows an individual to exchange property in their possession provided that there is no further transfer of the same property by force, theft or fraud. These two principles underscore the transfer and acquisition of goods through legitimate means. Conversely, Nozick opines that the principle of just rectification seeks to correct violations of the principles of just acquisition and just transfer. Distributive justice, according to Nozick, involves ensuring that goods end up with those who found them or made them, or those who acquire them from others via an agreement that is, selling or buying of goods. All other means of owning goods are not legitimate, on the basis of a moral position. This hinges on the premise that all other means of owning goods entails forcing people to give goods to others, and this contravenes the general libertarian principle that Nozick contends is the most basic moral principle. However, where an individual has acquired goods by assassination, theft, or fraud, Nozick urges that it is important that the just rectification principle is pursued. This principle is especially useful in a case whereby a person has been involved in unjust transfers, or where there is original acquisition of a good. The principle endeavours to establish what might have transpired in the event that the unjust transfer/acquisition had not taken place. The principle further demands the implementation of measures like compensation or restitution with the goal of enabling the victim go back to the condition she or he would have been had the injustice not happened. Finally, the principle does not approve compensatory processes that could be infringe on individual rights of third-parties who are not connected with the property being transferred or acquired. Nozick is of the view that execution of the principle of rectification is crucial in setting up the legitimacy of all property by examining justice in the acquisition and transfer of such property, and the likely compensation that the victims ought to receive should it be established that they have been the victims of injustices. Most critics of liberalism complain that it permits too little government. Specifically, they argue on the need for a more-than-minimal state to aid in the realisation of distributive justice. Rawls maintains that the state should partake in redistributive taxation as a means of ensuring that income and wealth is distributed fairly in the society. This is a position that Nozick is opposed to, going by his entitlement theory of justice Rawls offers opposing views of legitimate state power to those offered by Nozick. Rawls maintains that the state ought to possess the powers it needs to see to it that the least well-off citizens become well-off. Such a viewpoint is rooted in his theory of justice. A key principle to this theory holds that the only time when unequal distribution of income and wealth becomes unacceptable is in case individuals at the bottom becomes well off that is likely to be the case under any other form of distribution. Nozick is opposed to such arguments, indicating that they rely on a false ideation of distributive justice. Rawls is opposed to utilitarianism as it could allow an unjust distribution of burdens and benefits. Unlike Nozick, Rawls is of the view that social justice encompasses the fundamental structure of society, as opposed to transactions between individuals. Rawls also intimates that justice demands that there be a minimisation of economic and social outcomes of arbitrarily distributed goods. Conclusion Nozicks is not just. Nozick views the voluntary transactions among individuals that act forms the foundation for justice, rather than the distribution itself. If at all Nozicks Wilt Chamberlain argument is to be regarded as being valid, we must first accept his entitlement theory. The allegations of third parties not partaking in any transactions could legitimately change following changes in distribution in society. Although the Wilt Chamberlain argument holds instinctive appeal, arguments that endeavour to support the very needy are likely to possess even stronger intuitive appeal. The principle of rectification as popularised by Nozick, along with the principle of compensation that is linked to it, are difficult to apply, and this could justify universal supply of opportunity and sustenance. Even the pettiest claims ought to be considered in the minimal state as they are vital for poor people. The principle of compensation could fall short of upholding rights as virtually anything may be done. Nozick fails to acknowledge the crucial role of political power in a minimal state, just like in any other state. While Nozick urges that charity could aid in the acquisition of social goods, such an argument is inadequate charities lacks the means or resources to undertake important schemes, such as in healthcare or education.

The Old Age Home

THE OLD AGE HOME Preface: In Western Country, Old aged person stay in old home is a common incident, but for our country, it is not natural because Bangladesh is a family bonding country. People here like to stay together. But increasing with modern facilities, people now prefer to think only for themselves & their old aged parents seems burden to them & they try to get rid from them. For that reason the number of Old homes are increasing day by day. Mission & Vision of this project: The main mission of the project is to increasing awareness between the young generation for not to leave their parents along in the time of their need.We want to make them conscious in this sense that, if they leave their parents along on their need, one day they also must be leave by their lovely children without any reason. The letter posted in every wall of old home is given bellow: [pic] If we successfully can increase awareness between people, the Rang on Old age home living people must be decrease & our countries family bonding being strong again. By this project we can make better relationship between us & the old people. We come to know about their life style & easily prepared ourselves for our future. IT helps us in many ways.Description & Roles of the old age home : Above 60 up ages men/women who are helpless, unable to earn anymore, who has no place to live, whose sons /daughter are able to look after them but don’t take care of them or who has no child or kit-kin . in a word who are helpless in financially /socially like this old men /women, they stay at old age home with the help of government or any non-government organization. In Bangladesh, there are four old age home. One government, one semi-govt. & two non- govt. The old home we visited is situated at Bishia Kuribari Monipur (hotapara) in joydebpur, Gazipur.The organizer of this old-aged home is the biggest Givency group, which is spread all over Gazipur district. With this many social well-fare work, the Old Aged home is one of them. The Total land area is about 24 Acres. The environment of old home is quiet and evergreen. There are a tin-shed building and three 5-stored building for the old men & women. [pic] By the old age home superintendent / caretaker and the list of old men/women, we came to know, at present there are 205 old men/women among them 93 old men and 112 old women.At first, we talked with some old men/women then they inform us that here they survive their rest life with some given rice. The old people get food in time. They also inform that, when they become seek there is a medical unit for treatment where has experienced doctor, two nurses and others officers and staff. The old age home put for them a noble/great treatment. There is a TV room and a common room for entertainment. They can use those rooms anytime. There are newspapers and books for passing leisure time. There is also a prayer room; all have to pray at time.But for living there, they (old men/women) n eed not to pay. Admission requirement: †¢ Above 60 years old. †¢ They have to be actual helpless. †¢ They have to be able to walk without anyone help. †¢ They have to be mentally strong. †¢ They have to be able to do own walk. †¢ They have to neat and clean. †¢ They have to attend the prayer regularly. †¢ Smoking is not allowed in this institution. †¢ The facilities which are given from the institution, nobody can want more than that. †¢ For religious festival they can get vacation for two times in a year, visitors can meet with them anytime. Description of our visit:May 31st, 2012, the first day, we started our journey from varsity campus at 11. 00 A. M. That day was Thursday and our class finished at 10:40 A. M. At first, we went station road by our varsity campus at 31/05/2012. That day was Thursday and our class finished at 10:40 a. m. at first we went station road by our varsity bus. Then we went to Hotapara, Gazipur by public t ransport. Then we went to Bishia Kuribari Monipur by auto-rickshaw. After 30 min we reached to the old age home. Then we talked with gatekeeper for permission to enter into the old age home. They took us to the office of caretaker and told to seat there until he came.After half an hour the caretaker came to the office and asked what we want, where we from. Then we told him that we are from a varsity, name – IUBAT. And we wanted to visit the old age home and also wanted to meet with the old people who live there. Then he refused us. He said student entering is not allowed without permission of authority. Then he gave us the cell number of the authority. Then we phoned the authority for permission. After requesting a lot, he permitted us to visit the old age home but not allowed to talk with any old people, also not allowed to take any picture. After that, he sent a guard with us.We really become very surprised to see the whole area. It’s really very large. The total Lan d area is 24 acres. It’s filled with green trees. Many kinds of fruits & flowers are there. The authority use jar for keeping water cool. This water mainly naturally purified by natural purifying system. There are almost 5 ponds in the campus. & fisheries is available almost all ponds. Authority also grows different vegetables & seeds there for ensuring all campus members good health. Prayer room, park, Hospital everything is available in the campus. Their also have big grave place for the time after their death.Mainly for Those person, who become death in this area & whose family not came to receive his dead-body after death. Over all the whole campus is nicely maintained by The Givency Group. Their Old age home project is really a non- profitable, helpful project for our general people. For visiting again the campus & talk with old persons, we need permission of the Authority. For that reason, we first approve an application by our course instructor & went to the main offic e of old home (sector-9, Uttara) for seeking permission. A format of that application is attached with this main document:After getting permission, we went there 2ndtime, in the same way. After reach there, we went to the caretaker’s room. We show them the application & request him to give us a chance for talking with the old people who are interested. By seeing the permission paper, He gave a chance to entering there but not allowed taking any mobile or camera. We agreed him and leave the camera and mobile. In that day we got two hours to stay with the old people. We all members enjoyed that day a lot. Some old men and women were so happy to see us. But the guard didn’t give us the chance to talk with everyone.They knew who are interested and who are not interested to talk with us. We talk with them who are interested to talk. In this day some old men and women told us to go again to meet with them. Fillings on their family absence: Almost all the people, who live in the old age home, have a family. They have children, they have grandchildren. But they are living here without their any of family members. Though they are here but they think about their family every moment. Though their family members are not careful about them, but they wish a happy life for their family. They also pray for their family.They always miss them all. They think if they are with their family. A conversation between an old woman and our group member Angkan kanti paul: An old woman called Angkan near her with smiley face†¦ Angkan: As-salamualykum. Woman: oalaikum-assalam, who are you? & What do you want? Angkan: I am Ankan, I want to know about you. I am here to see you, for spending few memorable times with you. Have you few times for me? Woman: I’m fine. I have a grandson as like as you. Angkan: I’m also your grandson. Woman: No. Because after leave me here he never come back for see me. But you come. Where is my grandson?He doesn’t come to m e and he doesn’t hug me anymore. After this conversation the old woman started to cry and went inside the room. Refreshment for them: On that day we got few times for spending with them. We did something for their mind refreshment. There was a few man and woman sitting beside garden, we joined with them. We asked about their health. After some time our one guest sung a song. They were happy with us. We walked some area with them. On the way they said some story of their life. After telling story of their life they became upset. When we understood that we told some jokes of our varsity life.We don’t know when we took place in their mind, when we told we have to go right now, they became upset and told us to come again to meet them. We all became also upset for them. They told us some sort story of their life. One Story of a woman given below: One old woman told as about her life story, how she came there. She had one son and one daughter. Her husband was a govt. employe r. After her husband died she reared her son and daughter. She gave her daughter marry. Her son got a job in privet farm. Then her son got marry. After half a year her son’s wife started to rude with her.One day her son came to her and told her that he will go outside with her for visiting a park. She was so happy. She got ready and started journey with her son. Her son brought her here. It is like a nice park so she didn’t understood. One time her son told her to seat in the park, and told that he is going for few moments, he will be back. But he didn’t back. Even he never met with his mother again. What we have learned from them? : We learn from them that in the last stage of life they are passing their time with full of sorrows, because they are the neglected person of their family. For this reason, they suffer in the long run.Only they know, living without family, how much painful. We also learn that we do not separate our mother, father, grandmother, grandf ather in the last stage of life, because they reared us with love. We will not send them to old age home. We try to feel there sorrows by standing on their present condition & promised us by ourselves that we never ever leave our parents alone in old home. We stay with our parents till their last breath. Limitations of our Project: For completing our project we face few obstacles & there also have few limitations, because in Old home, The Authority doesn’t permit us to talk freely with older.In old home, members are not living happily, if we asked them emotional questions, they become sad. For that reason, we try to talk with them very smartly but not freely. Though Authority gives them all facilities, they also have some limitations. It’s a institution not home, & Older are not fully satisfied with this types of facilities. But maintaining good quality of food & shelter they can’t improved the quality for making it best. Abstracted: Actually no one become happy in his life. But old people who lived in old home are really suffer a lot at their last stage of life.There life is full with sorrows & the pain for not getting happiness. Though their relatives leave them alone, they always pray for their good wish. In their last stage of life they only want to see their lovely child’s face for last time. It’s really shame for us that, we can’t take those persons responsibilities by whom, we came in this beautiful world. They all live here together like family, but this is not their real family. Actually without children they spend their life not happily. They don’t want to live long, they only want a happy Ending of their life.

A Study On Substance Abuse - 1562 Words

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The integration of various schools o f psychotherapy has been in the making for several decades, the reason it took so long to be taken seriously is because of the competition between different schools. A good example of this is during Freudian times when there were meetings on psychoanalysis, during these meetings each therapist would claim that they had found the best treatment approach which caused arguments. These disagreements only multiplied once behaviorism was founded. One of the first attempts at combining techniques wasShow MoreRelatedThe Cost Of Substance Abuse In Canada Case Study966 Words   |  4 PagesThe cost of substance abuse in Canada is astronomical. According to the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse (CCSA), in 2002 alcohol accounted for about $14.6 billion and illegal drugs for about $8.2 billion in social cost (Single, Robertson, Rehm, Xie, 2002). 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Malcolm X And Langston Hughes Essay - 898 Words

For the whole of America’s existence, its citizens have exhibited miscellaneous personalities and life choices. Quality examples of this diversity is easily seen in the nation’s literature. America’s foundation was made of rebels and revolutionists who weren’t happy about the relationship they had with England. Through perseverance and unlikely partnerships, America was able to rise and become a country. The citizens that emerged from this long and hard process had all kinds of mixed perspectives about what America should become. While some ideas damaged American society, some came to benefit and change life for every citizen. Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and Langston Hughes are three writers who, through their reputable writings,†¦show more content†¦On the other hand, the views and opinions of Malcolm X when dealing with civil rights, were essentially the exact opposite of Martin Luther King Jr.’s. However, this does not mean he i s any less of an ideal American citizen. (2)While he did use a more aggressive approach to solving the racial discrimination problems of the time, he exemplified courageousness in many ways. Malcolm X was a driving force in the northern neighborhoods, preaching self-improvement and self-reliance. He once said, (3)â€Å"A race of people is like an individual man; until it uses its own talent, takes pride in its own history, expresses its own culture, affirms its own selfhood, it can never fulfill itself.† (-‘Founding Rally of the Organization of Afro-American Unity Speech’) He also greatly supported the â€Å"you get what you give† philosophy, (4)â€Å"I am a Muslim, because it s a religion that teaches you an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. It teaches you to respect everybody, and treat everybody right. But it also teaches you if someone steps on your toe, chop off their foot. 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Major Transcendentalist Figures Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) Nature (1836) The American Scholar (1837) Divinity School Address (1838) Essays: First Series (1841) Essays: Second Series (1844) H. D. Thoreau (1817-1862) Walden (1854) â€Å"Civil Disobedience† (1849) Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845) Editor of The Dial (1840-42) High Romanticism Whitman and Dickinson: